Saliva-Mediated Contrasting Effects of Two Citrus Aphid Species on Asian Citrus Psyllid Feeding Behavior and Plant Jasmonic Acid Pathway.

While herbivorous insect saliva plays a crucial role in the interaction between plants and insects, its role in the inter-specific interactions between herbivorous insects has received little attention. Pre-infestation of citrus plants with Aphis spiraecola Patch and Aphis (Toxoptera) citricidus (Kirkaldy) exhibited positive and negative effects on the performance (feeding and reproduction) of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama. We explored the role of saliva in this plant-mediated interaction by infiltrating fresh and boiled aphid saliva into plants and detecting D. citri feeding behavior and citrus plant defense response. Leaf infiltration of A. spiraecola saliva disrupted the subsequent feeding of D. citri, indicated by prolonged extracellular stylet pathway duration and decreased phloem sap ingestion duration. By contrast, infiltration of A. citricidus saliva decreased the duration of the extracellular stylet pathway and phloem sap ingestion of D. citri. Furthermore, gene expression analysis showed that several salicylic acid (SA)- and jasmonic acid (JA)-pathway-related genes were activated by A. spiraecola saliva infiltration. However, two SA-pathway-related genes were activated and three JA-pathway-related genes were suppressed following A. citricidus saliva infiltration. Treatment with boiled saliva did not similarly impact D. citri feeding behavior or plant defense response. This study suggests that salivary components (those that can be inactivated by heating) from two citrus aphid species differently affect plant defenses and that they were responsible for the contrasting plant-mediated effects of two citrus aphids on the feeding behavior of D. citri. This study indicates a novel three-way citrus aphid-plant-citrus psyllid interaction.

Vermicompost Amendments Disrupt Feeding Behavior of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama and Boost Activities of Salicylic Acid and Jasmonic Acid Pathway-Related Enzymes in Citrus.

Plants grown with vermicompost amendments are known to be harmful to sap-sucking insects, but the underlying mechanism remains to be determined. Here we investigated the feeding behavior of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama on Citrus limon (L.) Burm. F using the electrical penetration graph technique. Plants were grown in soil with different vermicompost rates (0%, 20%, 40%, and 60% w/w). Additionally, plants were tested for the activity of salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) pathway-related enzymes. When compared to the control, vermicompost treatments (40% and 60%) decreased duration of phloem sap feeding and increased duration of the pathway phase of D. citri, and the 60% vermicompost made it more difficult for D. citri to reach and gain access to phloem sap. Enzymatic assays indicated that the 40% amendment rate increased phenylalanine ammonia lyase (involved in the SA pathway) and polyphenol oxidase (involved in the JA pathway), while the 60% amendment rate increased -1,3-glucanases (involved in the SA pathway) and lipoxygenase (involved in the JA pathway). The 20% amendment rate had no effect on feeding or enzyme activities. This study revealed that vermicompost amendments can reduce the efficiency of D. citri feeding, which may result from increased plant resistance via the SA and JA pathway.

Plant jasmonic acid mediated contrasting effects of two citrus aphid species on Diaphorina citri Kuwayama.

BACKGROUND: Herbivores may influence each other directly and through plant mediated inter-specific interactions. The Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama) and citrus aphids are key pests that can co-exist on citrus, but their plant-mediated interaction between them is unknown. Here we investigated plant-mediated effect of two citrus aphid species, the polyphagous Aphis spiraecola Patch and the oligophagous Aphis (Toxoptera) citricidus (Kirkaldy) on the feeding behavior and reproduction of Diaphorina citri, and explored the underlying mechanisms. RESULTS: In comparison with those on aphid free plants, Diaphorina citri had decreased reproduction and reduced phloem feeding on Aphis spiraecola pre-infested plants, while the reproduction and feeding efficiency were increased on Aphis citricidus pre-infested plants. Jasmonic acid (JA) dependent defense was significantly activated by Diaphorina citri feeding on Aphis spiraecola pre-infested plants, but was suppressed by Diaphorina citri feeding on Aphis citricidus pre-infested plants compared with that on aphid free plant. By contrast, only one tested marker gene in salicylic acid (SA) signaling was activated by Diaphorina citri feeding on Aphis spiraecola pre-infested plants. Furthermore, exogenous application of methyl jasmonate, but not SA, conferred resistance against Diaphorina citri in our citrus trials. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that pre-infestation by two citrus aphid species differentially altered Diaphorina citri induced citrus JA dependent defense, which resulted in different effect on subsequent Diaphorina citri performance. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Thysanoptera as predators: their diversity and significance as biological control agents.

Some species of thrips have evolved predatory behaviours, with their reported prey range including thrips, mites, scale-insects, whitefly, psyllid nymphs, and eggs of moths and beetles. However, our current understanding of the biology and potential of these thrips as biological control agents is insufficient, limiting our understanding of their role in pest management. This paper assesses published information on the diversity of predatory thrips and the available biological data on their diet breadth. About 100 species within three different families - Aeolothripidae, Phlaeothripidae and Thripidae - seem likely to be predatory, although some conclusions are speculative. Both facultative and obligate predators can be found among the species with prey records. Obligate predators feed primarily on arthropod tissues, whereas facultative predators consume plant tissues in addition to prey. Quantitative information regarding developmental biology, longevity and fecundity, was obtained for only 11 species. Obligate predators, particularly members of Scolothrips and Franklinothrips, are efficient biological control agents. To better augment the use of predatory thrips in pest management, further increased investment in mass rearing, life history and ecological studies, including interactions with other organisms and their habitat, are needed on these natural enemies. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization of Zanthoxylum rhoifolium (Sapindales: Rutaceae) Essential Oil Nanospheres and Insecticidal Effects to Bemisia tabaci (Sternorrhyncha: Aleyrodidae).

Encapsulation via nanotechnology offers a potential method to overcome limited thermal and photo-stability of botanical pesticides. In this study, nanospheres of essential oils (NSEO) derived from Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam. fruit were characterized and evaluated for their photostability and insecticidal activity against Bemisia tabaci. Three major compounds of Z. rhoifolium fruits were detected by CG-MS: ß-phellandrene (76.8%), ß-myrcene (9.6%), and germacrene D (8.3%). The nanoprecipitation method was used to obtain homogeneous spherical NSEO, with ≥98% encapsulation efficiency. Tests with UV/Vis spectrophotometry showed significantly reduced photodegradation from exposed NSEO samples when compared with essential oil (EO) controls. Whitefly screenhouses bioassays with bean plants treated with 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 1.5% suspensions showed EO treatments in both free and nanoencapsulated forms reduced adult whitefly oviposition by up to 71%. In further tests, applications at 1.5% caused ≥64% mortality of second instar nymphs. When the test was conducted under high temperature and light radiation conditions, the insecticidal effect of NSEO treatments was improved (i.e., 84.3% mortality) when compared to the free form (64.8%). Our results indicate the insecticidal potential of EO-derived from Z. rhoifolium fruits with further formulation as nanospheres providing greater photostability and enhanced insecticidal activity against B. tabaci under adverse environmental conditions.

A Review of Franklinothrips vespiformis (Thysanoptera: Aeolothripidae): Life History, Distribution, and Prospects as a Biological Control Agent.

Predatory species comprise a small but important and often overlooked component of the Thysanoptera. A case in point, the ant-mimicking Franklinothrips are widely distributed in the tropics and are considered important generalist natural enemies for thrips and some other small arthropod prey. Franklinothrips present an addition to biocontrol applications, i.e., greenhouse or commercial application for certain target pests and situations. Current knowledge, including distribution, biological features, life history pa rameters, prey specificity, host plant associations and lass production is yet insufficient to decide to what extent Franklinothrips could contribute for biological control programs. In this review, we summarized the geographical background, morphology, and prey associations, with a focus on F. vespiformis, the most widely distributed species of predatory thrips. This literature review serves as the basis for future research into the use of Franklinothrips as biocontrol agents for economically significant insect and mite pests in China and elsewhere.

Comparison of Frankliniella fusca and Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) as Vectors for a Peanut Strain of Tomato Spotted Wilt Orthotospovirus.

Tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV) is a major disease in peanut, Arachis hypogaea L., across peanut producing regions of the United States and elsewhere. Two thrips, Frankliniella fusca Hinds and Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), are considered important vectors of TSWV in peanut in the Southeast. We compared the efficiency of acquisition (by larvae) and transmission (adults) of both thrips species for TSWV (Texas peanut-strain) to leaf disks of peanut (Florunner), as well as to Impatiens walleriana Hook. f. (Dwarf White Baby) and Petunia hybrida Juss. 'Fire Chief' using double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA). Both species were competent TSWV vectors in peanut and Impatiens, although F. fusca was the more efficient vector overall, i.e., virus acquisition and transmission rates for F. fusca averaged over several bioassays were 51.7 and 26.6%, respectively, compared with 20.0 and 15.3% for F. occidentalis. Neither species effectively transmitted this TSWV strain to Petunia (i.e., ≤3.6% transmission). We found statistically similar virus acquisition and transmission rates between both sexes for each species. We also detected no differences in TSWV-acquisition and transmission frequency between macropterous and brachypterous (short-wing) forms of F. fusca collected from a field population in south Texas. DAS-ELISA failed to detect low levels of TSWV in a few thrips that subsequently proved to be competent vectors.

Integrated Pest Management of Coffee Berry Borer in Hawaii and Puerto Rico: Current Status and Prospects.

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei, is the most significant insect pest of coffee worldwide. Since CBB was detected in Puerto Rico in 2007 and Hawaii in 2010, coffee growers from these islands are facing increased costs, reduced coffee quality, and increased pest management challenges. Here, we outline the CBB situation, and summarize the findings of growers, researchers, and extension professionals working with CBB in Hawaii. Recommendations for the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program for CBB in Hawaiian Islands and Puerto Rico include: (1) establish a CBB monitoring program, (2) synchronize applications of insecticides with peak flight activity of CBB especially during the early coffee season, (3) conduct efficient strip-picking as soon as possible after harvest and perform pre-harvest sanitation picks in CBB hotspots if needed, (4) establish protocols to prevent the escape of CBB from processing areas and when transporting berries during harvest, and (5) stump prune by blocks. Progress achieved includes the introduction of the mycoinsecticide Beauveria bassiana to coffee plantations, the coordination of area-wide CBB surveys, the establishment and augmentation of native beetle predators, and an observed reduction of CBB populations and increased coffee quality where IPM programs were established. However, CBB remains a challenge for coffee growers due to regional variability in CBB pressures, high costs, and labor issues, including a lack of training and awareness of CBB management practices among growers.

A Rapid Sampling Plan for Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on Container Shrub Rose (Rosa 'Radrazz').

The development of simple and reliable pest sampling programs is needed for growers to adopt economic or aesthetic injury levels. We developed a sampling plan for monitoring chilli thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood populations on KnockOut shrub roses under simulated nursery conditions. The distribution of S. dorsalis among different plant structures revealed that most adults and larvae are found on foliar terminals, when compared with buds and flowers. Based on thrips distribution, the third leaf of actively growing terminals was used to determine a sequential sampling model. Thrips had an aggregated distribution, based on Taylor's power law and Iwao's mean crowding index, with both models showing a good fit (i.e., R2 of ∼0.8 and ∼0.9, respectively). Based on these model parameters, the number of samples required to estimate populations with a 10% precision was ∼30 leaves according to Green's and Kuno's enumerative sequential sampling plans. A binomial model also estimated the proportion of infested leaf terminals as a function of insect density with an R2 value of 0.85. An additional study demonstrated that correlation between visual damage to the third leaf terminal and initial thrips populations was modeled by simple power functions. This finding suggests that a more rapid visual sampling of plant damage can be used to indirectly estimate S. dorsalis populations. Our sampling plan provides a tool to monitor S. dorsalis populations that could be used to help make management decisions for this pest in commercial nurseries.

Integrated Pest Management of Coffee Berry Borer: Strategies from Latin America that Could Be Useful for Coffee Farmers in Hawaii.

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is the primary arthropod pest of coffee plantations worldwide. Since its detection in Hawaii (September 2010), coffee growers are facing financial losses due to reduced quality of coffee yields. Several control strategies that include cultural practices, biological control agents (parasitoids), chemical and microbial insecticides (entomopathogenic fungi), and a range of post-harvest sanitation practices have been conducted to manage CBB around the world. In addition, sampling methods including the use of alcohol based traps for monitoring CBB populations have been implemented in some coffee producing countries in Latin America. It is currently unclear which combination of CBB control strategies is optimal under economical, environmental, and sociocultural conditions of Hawaii. This review discusses components of an integrated pest management program for CBB. We focus on practical approaches to provide guidance to coffee farmers in Hawaii. Experiences of integrated pest management (IPM) of CBB learned from Latin America over the past 25 years may be relevant for establishing strategies of control that may fit under Hawaiian coffee farmers' conditions.

Concentration-Response and Residual Activity of Insecticides to Control Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in St. Augustinegrass.

Tropical sod webworm, Herpetogramma phaeopteralis Guenée, is an important pest of warm-season turfgrass in the Gulf Coast states of the United States, the Caribbean Islands, and Central America. Current control recommendations rely on topical application of insecticides against caterpillars. The objective of this study was to generate resistance baseline data of H. phaeopteralis to six insecticide classes. Residual activity of clothianidin, chlorantraniliprole, and bifenthrin was also compared under field conditions in Central Florida. Chlorantraniliprole was the most toxic compound tested (LC50 value of 4.5 ppm), followed by acephate (8.6 ppm), spinosad (31.1 ppm), clothianidin (46.6 ppm), bifenthrin (283 ppm) and Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki, (342 ppm). In field tests, all compounds at label rates were effective (≥94% mortality of larvae exposed to fresh residues). However, a more rapid decline in activity of clothianidin and bifenthrin was observed compared with chlorantraniliprole. Clothianidin had no statistically detectable activity after 4 wk post-application in spring and the fall, and bifenthrin had no detectable activity after 3 wk in the spring and the fall. However, chlorantraniliprole maintained significant activity (≥84% mortality) compared with other treatments throughout the 5-wk study period. This study provides new information regarding the relative toxicities and persistence of current insecticides used for H. phaeopteralis and other turfgrass caterpillars.

Insects associated with tropical foliage produced in the coffee growing region of Colombia

We conducted a survey of insects and pest management practices on 34 farms growing ornamental tropical foliage plants in the central coffee region of Colombia over two years. Tropical foliage provided habitat for a diverse range of insects. In total, phytophagous or detritivorous insects from six orders, 40 families and 62 genera were collected. The most common were Hemiptera (29 genera from 16 families), followed by Coleoptera (17 genera from 4 families), Diptera (5 genera from 5 families), Lepidoptera (5 genera from 4 families), Hymenoptera (3 genera from 2 families) and Orthoptera (2 genera from 2 families). The most common phytophagous species were leaf cutting ants (Atta and Acromyrmex spp.), leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), leafhoppers (Cicadellidae), stinkbugs (Pentatomidae), squash bugs (Coreidae), tree hoppers (Membracidae) and plant hoppers (Fulgoridae). Beneficial insects identified from tropical foliage included predators and parasitoids amongst 5 orders, 12 families and 22 genera. The most abundant were predators among the Coccinellidae, Chrysopidae, Reduviidae, Lycidae and Formicidae but only low numbers of parasitoids (Ichneumonidae, Braconidae and Tachinidae) were collected. A pest management questionnaire given to growers revealed a preponderance of reliance on broad spectrum insecticides with a smaller number of growers (approximately one third) also using some biological control methods. Our survey contributes basic information regarding diversity of Neotropical insects associated with ornamental foliage plants.

Compatibility of Isaria fumosorosea (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) Blastospores with Agricultural Chemicals Used for Management of the Asian Citrus Psyllid, Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Liviidae).

Biorational insecticides are being increasingly emphasized for inclusion in integrated pest management programs for invasive insects. The entomopathogenic fungus, Isaria fumosorosea, can be used to help manage the Asian citrus psyllid with minimal impact on beneficial arthropods, but its effectiveness may be compromised by agrochemicals used to control concurrent arthropod pests and diseases. We evaluated the compatibility of I. fumosorosea blastospores with a range of spray oils and copper-based fungicides registered for use in citrus groves. Results of laboratory and greenhouse tests showed a range of responses of the fungus to the different materials, including compatibility and incompatibility. Overall, I. fumosorosea growth in vitro was reduced least by petroleum-based materials and most by botanical oils and borax, and some of the copper-based fungicides, suggesting that tank mixing of I. fumosorosea with these latter products should be avoided. However, equivalent negative effects of test materials on fungal pathogenicity were not always observed in tests with adult psyllids. We hypothesize that some oils enhanced adherence of blastospores to the insect cuticle, overcoming negative impacts on germination. Our data show that care should be taken in selecting appropriate agrochemicals for tank-mixing with commercial formulations of entomopathogenic fungi for management of citrus pests. The prospects of using I. fumosorosea for managing the invasive Asian citrus psyllid and other citrus pests are discussed.

Thermal requirements and development of Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae: Spilomelinae).

ABSTRACT The tropical sod webworm, Herpetogramma phaeopteralis Guenée is a major turfgrass pest in the southeastern United States. We evaluated larval development on five artificial diets and at six temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 32.5, 35 +/- 1 degree C) on St. Augustinegrass (Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze). Only larvae fed St. Augustinegrass and soy-wheat germ diets completed their lifecycles. None of the artificial diets tested (corn-based, soy-wheat germ, corn cob-wheat germ, corn cob-soy flour, or pinto bean) were suitable for rearing this species, because of high mortality and slower developmental time. Total developmental time (oviposition to adult) on S. secundatum significantly decreased from 47.8 d at 20 degrees C to 21.1 d at 30 degrees C, and then increased to 32.6 d at 32.5 degrees C. Tropical sod webworm failed to complete larval development at 15 and 35 degrees C. The relationship between temperature and developmental rate was described using linear (common and polynomial) and nonlinear models (Briere-1, Briere-2, and Lactin-2). The estimated lower temperature thresholds using a linear model for eggs, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth instars, prepupa, pupa, and total development were 10.1, 6.9, 12.3, 10.5, 15.3, 13.9, 9.1, 13.1, 12.0, and 13.1 degrees C, and the thermal constant of these stages were 62.9, 66.2, 38.2, 40.3, 24.9, 32.3, 51.9, 106.4, 109.9, and 370.4 degree-days, respectively. The Briere-1 model provided the best fit with estimated lower, upper, and optimum thresholds for total development of 14.9, 34.3, and 29.4 degrees C, respectively. The developmental requirements of H. phaeopteralis can be used to help predict the distribution and seasonal phenology of this pest.

Evaluation of a granulovirus (PoGV) and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki for control of the potato tuberworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in stored tubers.

Liquid suspensions and dry formulations of a granulovirus (family Baculoviridae, genus Granulovirus, PoGV) derived from infected larvae and the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Berliner) (Btk) were evaluated for control of the potato tuberworm, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in stored tubers. Laboratory bioassays at 25 degrees C showed that both PoGV and a wettable powder (WP) formulation of Btk incorporated with carriers (water, talc, sand, diatomaceous earth, and kaolin clay), were effective against neonate larvae. Depending on the technique, 100% larval mortality was achieved at concentrations as low as 0.025 larval equivalents (LE) PoGV per kg tuber and 150 mg Btk WP per kg tuber. However, 100% mortality was never achieved with tests on preinfested tubers, ostensibly due to the higher dosage required to kill older instars inside tubers. The most effective PoGV formulations were dipping (water) and talc, with dipping most effective for postinfestation treatments, causing up to 91.6% mortality at 0.4 LE per kg. There was no significant effect of formulation in the Btk treatments. The protective effects of residues were also evaluated under longer-term storage conditions. Batches of tubers treated with PoGV or Btk via dipping (up to 0.1 LE and 150 mg WP per kg tuber) were stored in cages containing an initial potato tuberworm infestation (10% of tubers). Although potato tuberworm populations were reduced by up to 98.4% after 2 mo at 25 degrees C, no treatments prevented the development and reproduction of the F1 generation. The sprouting of stored tubers seemed to be a limiting factor for sustained control. No significant treatment effects were detected in similar cages held at 12 degrees C for 4.5 mo. Improved strategies for the application of PoGV and Btk for long-term potato tuberworm control in tuber stores, including the use of chemical sprout suppressants, are discussed.

Effect of temperature on long-term storage of codling moth granulovirus formulations.

Codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), is the major pest of apple (Malus spp.) in the western United States and many other regions of the world. The codling moth granulovirus (CpGV) provides a selective and safe means of its control. We assessed the long-term stability and storage potential of two commercial formulations of CpGV, Cyd-X, and Virosoft. All assays were performed with individual C. pomonella neonate larvae in 2-ml vials on 1 ml of artificial larval diet that was surface inoculated with 10 microl of the test virus suspension. Baseline quantitative assays for the two formulations revealed that the LC50 and LC95 values (occlusion bodies per vial) did not differ significantly between the formulations. For year-long studies on Cyd-X stability, the product was stored at -20, 2, 25, and 35 degrees C, and quantitative bioassays were conducted after 0, 3, 6, and 12 mo of storage. Cyd-X retained good larvicidal activity from -20 to 25 degrees C, and it was the least negatively affected at the lowest temperature. Storage of Cyd-X at 35 degrees C was detrimental to its larvicidal activity within 3 mo of storage. For longer term storage studies, Cyd-X and Virosoft formulations were stored at 2, 25, and 35 degrees C, and assayed for larvicidal activity over a 3-yr period. For recently produced product, a 10-microl sample of a 10(-5) dilution of both formulations resulted in 95-100% mortality in neonate larvae. Larvicidal activity for the Cyd-X formulation remained essentially unaffected for 156 wk when stored at 2 and 25 degrees C, but it began to decline significantly after 20 wk of storage at 35 degrees C. The Virosoft formulation stored at 2 degrees C also remained active throughout the 3-yr study, but it began to decline in larvicidal activity after 144 wk at 25 degrees C and 40 wk at 35 degrees C. The information reported in this study should be useful to growers and commercial suppliers for avoiding decreases in CpGV potency due to improper storage conditions.

New method for testing solar sensitivity of commercial formulations of the granulovirus of codling moth (Cydia pomonella, Tortricidae: Lepidoptera).

A method for screening codling moth granulovirus (CpGV) formulation sensitivity to sunlight using specially prepared half apples and a solar simulator is described. The half apple preparation allows an even coverage of virus over the surface of the fruit that would not be possible using whole apples. Leaves and artificial medium were not usable for extended periods of exposure in the solar simulator due to excess drying. Fruit was sprayed with 10(-3) and 10(-5) dilutions of three commercial formulations of CpGV (Carpovirusine, Cyd-X, and Virosoft) and infested with codling moth neonates. Half of the sprayed fruit was exposed to 650 W/m2 for 4 h in an Atlas Suntest CPS solar simulator resulting in an accumulated radiant energy of 9.36x10(6) J/m2 before they were infested with neonate codling moth larvae. Spraying non-irradiated fruit with the 10(-3) dilution of Cyd-X and Virosoft resulted in nearly 100% mortality of neonate larvae. Irradiation reduced viral activity by 71-98% at the 10(-3) dilution and by up to 32% at the 10(-5) dilution relative to non-irradiated fruit. The procedures utilized enabled good preservation of the fruit throughout the incubation period and minimized invasion of the fruit by plant pathogens and saprophytic organisms. This laboratory method for screening candidate formulations and potential UV protectants could conserve time and resources by eliminating adjuvants with less potential in laboratory tests and field testing only the most promising candidates. It also enables year-round testing.